INTRODUCTION:

Ageratum conyzoides Linn. (Asteraceae) is often referred to as Appa grass and goat weed in English, Pumpillu in Tamil, and Visadodi in Hindi. This is a polymorphic, aromatic, annual herb that is indigenous to tropical America^1,2.Ageratum conyzoides has naturalized as a weed in India, including the middle Andaman. The genus name "Ageratum" is derived from the Greek words "a geras," meaning non-aging, likely referring to the plant's prolonged lifespan.

The species epithet "conyzoides" is linked to the Greek name for Inula helenium, suggesting a resemblance between the two plants^3,4. The plant is recognizable by its pale green foliage and its flowers, pale blue or white, malodorous, and consist of 50 - 80 flowered corymbs. It blooms during October to November⁵. Ageratum derives from the Greek phrase ‘a geras,’ meaning non-aging, pertains to the longevity of the entire plant. A.Conyzoides, conversely, comes from ‘konyz’, the Greek term for Inula helenium, plant resembles⁶. Ageratum conyzoides is a member of the Asteraceae family and the Eupatoriae tribe. This family is distinctly characterized and cannot be mistaken for any other. Most of the plants in this family are herbaceous, whereas trees and shrubs are relatively uncommon. The genus Ageratum includes around 30 species, but only a handful of species have undergone phytochemical examination. The equatorial species Ageratum conyzoides is widely distributed throughout West Africa, as well as some parts of Asia and South America.It is an annual herb that branches and reaches around 1 m in height. The stems and leaves are coated with fine white hairs, while the leaves are oval-shaped and can grow up to 7. 5 cm in length. The flowers range from purple to white, measuring less than 6 mm in diameter and are clustered in close terminal inflorescences. The fruits are achenes and can be easily dispersed, with the seeds being photoblastic and often losing viability within 12 months ⁷. This plant frequently grows near human habitations, flourishes in various garden soils, and is very abundant in areas of waste and on derelict sites Ageratum conyzoides is known for its distinctive and potent odor, likened to the smell of a male goat in Australia, earning it colloquial names such as "goat weed" or "billy goat weed."Although this species' toxicity has not been fully studied, the essential oil that is extracted through steam distillation is said to have a very strong, sickening smell. The presence of Coumarin and HCN in the plant made it hazardous to rabbits. In some cultures, A. conyzoides is regarded as a delicacy for domestic guinea pigs, horses, and cattle, but humans do not eat it unless it is used medicinally ⁸.

Table No.1.Taxonomical classification

Kingdom	Plantae
Subkingdom	Angiosperm
Class	Eudicots
Order	Asterales
Family	Asteraceae
Genus	Ageratum
Species	conyzoides
Binomial name	Ageratum conyzoides Linn

Table No.2. Vernacular Names

Tamil	Pumpillu,
Sanskrit	Visamustih
English	Appa Grass.
Distribution	All over India
Plant Part Used	Whole Plant.

Fig. 01: Ageratum conyzoides

Plant profile:

Different components of this plant utilized in the traditional medical system to address a wide range of ailments including boils, Sores, Tetanus, Skin conditions, Fever, Chronic ulcers, Intra-uterine issues, Eye problems, rheumatism, asthma, stomach illnesses, and more 8 - 10. The plant's leaves are frequently used as an anthelmintic, Larvicidal, mosquito repellant, Insecticidal, Anti-inflammatory, Analgesic, Antipyretic, Antispasmodic, Gastroprotective, Antimicrobial, Anti-diabetic, Anticancer, Antiulcer, Antioxidant, Hematopoietic, and Wound healer. The stem is traditionally utilized as a wound healer, antioxidant, antitumor, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory⁹. Inflammatory, Antiulcer, Antidiabetic, Anticonvulsant, and antimicrobial properties. Its leaves contain Flavones and Chromene derivatives, while the stem has Isoflavone glycosides and Sterols. The whole plant includes Pyrrolizidine alkaloids, Terpenoids, and Polymethoxylated flavonoids. Various studies highlight its chemical constituents and biological activities, but further pharmacognostic research is needed. This study aims to assess macroscopic, microscopic, and physicochemical parameters. Skin disorders, a major global health issue, have significant psychological, social, and financial impacts¹⁰. Chronic skin disorders like psoriasis and eczema cause significant discomfort and reduced quality of life, while malignant melanoma has a high mortality rate. Various assessment tools help evaluate their impact. This review highlights existing studies on the burden of common skin disorders and suggests methods for measurement¹¹ Ageratum conyzoides is commonly utilized in traditional medicine throughout Africa, Asia, and South America for the treatment of a wide range of diseases. It serves as a purgative, febrifuge, and remedy for ophthalmia, colic, ulcers, and wounds. The plant is known for its antineuralgic and antipyretic effects, while in Africa, it is used for mental, infectious diseases, headaches, and dyspnea. In Cameroon, it treats craw-craw, and its pulverized leaves are used as an emetic and for uterine issues¹². They are used to treat pneumonia by applying them to the patient's chest. In addition to its widespread application for skin ailments and wound healing in Nigeria, a decoction of the plant is consumed internally to address diarrhea and to ease navel-related pain in children. In central Africa, the plant is utilized to specifically treat wounds resulting from burns. Meanwhile, in Kenya, East Africa, it is employed in traditional medicine for its Antiasthmatic, Antispasmodic, and Hemostatic properties. In India, it is applied in the management of leprosy and as an oil lotion for purulent ophthalmia¹³. In Brazilian folk medicine, A. conyzoides is used in medicinal teas for its Anti-inflammatory, Analgesic, and Antidiarrheal effects, while in Vietnam, it is valued for treating gynecological conditions. Traditionally, it also serves as a remedy for Rheumatism, Tooth pain, Sleeping sickness, and as an Anti-itch treatment. Additionally, it is used for Trachoma prevention in cattle and has documented nematocidal properties. The plant is also linked to cultural beliefs, offering protection from snake bites in Ivory Coast, aiding incantations in Nigeria, and enhancing luck for card players in Congo¹⁴. If the sap is applied to the accused in a trial and then pricked with a needle, the sensation of pain will only be experienced if guilty. The entire plant produces volatile oil with a potent fragrance. Several biological effects have been linked to this oil.

Phytochemistry:

A substantial part of the research on photochemistry focuses on the essential oil of this plant. The oil content varies irregularly with the seasons, ranging from 0.11% to 0.58% in the leaves and from 0.03% to 0.18% in the roots. Through the water distillation of the fresh flowers, the oil concentration was determined to be 0. 2%. The oil yield from the Petroleum ether extraction of the seeds was 26%. Mono and Sesquiterpenes: A significant number of components have been discovered through the GC-MS analysis of the essential oil of A. conyzoides. The highest number to date, 51 components have been documented from the examination of an oil sample of the plant obtained from a university setting in Nigeria. The components found include 20 monoterpenes at 6.4% and 20 Sesquiterpenes at 5.1%. The Mono- and Sesquiterpenes are found in very small amounts, approximately 0.1%. The Monoterpenes present in about 1% of the oil comprise Sabinene and Pinene at 1.6%, Phellandrene, 1,8-cineole, and Limonene at 2.9%, Terpinen-4-ol at 0.6%, and Terpineol at 0.5%. Ocimene, which appears in trace quantities in the oil from the Nigerian plant, is found to constitute 5.3% of the oil from the plant sourced in India¹⁵.

Pinene 6.6%, Eugenol 4.4%, and Methyleugenol 1. 8% are also derived from the Indian plant oil. The main Sesquiterpenes consist of Caryophyllene, 1.9% from the oil sourced from Cameroon 21 and 10.5% in Pakistani oil 22. Cadinene is another Sesquiterpene that has been documented to be present in about 4.3% of the oil from Indian plants. Ses-quiphellandrene and Caryophyllene epoxide have additionally been found at 1.2 and 0.5 percentages, respectively.

Table No.3. Chemical Structures

Structure	Name
	Pinene
	Sabinene
	Phellandre
	1,8-Cineole
	Limonene
	Terpinen-4-ol
	Terpineol
	Ocimene
	Eugenol
	Ses-quiphellandrene
	Caryophyllene epoxide

Phytochemical Analysis:^16,17,18

The crude extracts were analyzed for phytochemical constituents, including Alkaloids, Tannins, Terpenoids, Saponins and Flavonoids using slightly modified standard procedures the techniques were as follows:

Table No. 4. Phytochemical analysis

Test	Procedure	Positive Result
Terpenoids	Mix 1ml Chloroform with 10mg extract and standard, ursolic acid, add 1ml 0.1M H2SO4	Reddish brown hue
Saponins	1ml of purified water combined with 10mg extract and agited vigorously for 1 min	A stable, enduring froth
Tannins	Heat 10mg extract with 2ml water, 3 drops 0.1⁒ FeCl3	Blue black tint
Alkaloids	Dissolve 10mg extract in acid alchohal, add ammonia and chloroform	Reddish –brown precipitate
Flavonoids	Mix 2 ml ammonia with 2ml extract, add 1ml 0.1 H2SO4	Yellow hue (disappear after 5 min)

Bioactivity:

The biological functions of the plant are discussed under following subheadings:

Pharmacological and Insecticidal and other biological characteristics.

Pharmacological:

Crude extract: The unrefined extract of the entire plant has proven to be more effective than vaseline gauze as a wound dressing. It shows neuromuscular blocking activity in rats and causes a more significant drop in diastolic pressure. Its Calcium-blocking effect is similar to that of Verapamil. The leaf extract is used to alleviate chronic pain in Osteoarthritis patients and the Methanol extract has demonstrated Antimicrobial properties¹⁹. The aqueous leaf extract interferes with blood coagulation by precipitating certain blood components and reducing bleeding time. Additionally, it exhibits analgesic properties as shown by the hot plate test while also lowering rectal temperature and reducing spontaneous motor activity. An in vitro receptor radioligand assay confirmed that its pain-modulating effects are specific to a single receptor count word²⁰. The bradykinin BK II assay revealed a 50% inhibition that decreased following PVP treatment, suggesting phenolic compounds as the likely active agents. In contrast, no beneficial effects were observed in the CGRP and NK I assays. Clinical trials with arthritic patients using the aqueous extract of the entire plant showed that 66% experienced analgesia and 24% reported improved joint mobility, with no adverse effects noted.

Essential oil:

In studies with mice and rats, the essential oil from A. conyzoides exhibited significant anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antipyretic effects. It notably reduced inflammation in the cotton pellet granuloma model at oral doses of 3 and 4ml/kg (P<0.02) and showed pain-relieving activity in both the tail-flick and writhing tests at doses of 2, 3 and 4ml/kg. Furthermore, its antipyretic action at 3ml/kg was comparable to that of 50mg/kg per os of Acetyl salicylate lysine (P<0.05), and no gastric toxicity was observed after seven days of continuous dosing²¹. Research into the oil's antibacterial and antifungal properties revealed its inhibitory effects against various bacterial types including Gram-positive and Gram-negative species—and both filamentous and yeast-like fungi. Notably, the oil completely suppressed the growth of four fungal strains: Candida albicans SP-14, Cryptococcus neoformas SP- 16, Sclerotium rolfsii SP-5, and Trichophyton mentagrophytes SP-12²². According to Rao, the oil inhibited the growth of five distinct bacterial and fungal species. Its principal component, Dimethoxyageratochromene 1, was notably effective against the fungi Penicillium chrysogenum and P. jaanicum. Additionally, the oil completely suppressed both spore germination and mycelial growth of Didymella bryoniae.

Metabolites:

While the primary metabolites aside from the essential oil have not demonstrated any pharmacological effects, various chemical families from the plant show a wide range of activities. For example, simple Chromenes and Chromans especially the 6-amino and 6-acetamido derivatives exhibit Antidepressant, Analgesic and Antipyretic properties and some are effective against trematode flatworms. Additionally Certain 2,2-dimethyl Chromene derivatives display Antimicrobial action and Sterols, notably Stigmasterol have significant Anti-inflammatory effects. Flavonoids also contribute diverse biological functions, including diuretic, Spasmolytic, Antiviral, Anti-inflammatory, and central vascular effects²³. Flavonoids are known for their Anticancer and free radical scavenging properties. However, no studies have been conducted on the biological activity of Flavonoids isolated from A. conyzoides.

Insecticidal and other Biological Properties:

Assays in India demonstrated that the oil caused 91% nymphal mortality in Schistocerca gregaria. The Hexane extract of the plant was found effective against Musca domestica larvae. Methanolic extracts from fresh leaves (250-500ppm) disrupted juvenile hormone levels in Chilo partellus, a sorghum pest. Precocenes I and II have been shown to affect juvenile hormone in various insect species, leading to precocious metamorphosis and the development of sterile moribund adults. These Chromenes work synergistically and are metabolically stable for at least 12 days. Initial studies on their mechanism of action have been conducted, but a limitation is their potential hepatotoxicity in rats²⁴. The potential human health risk of using Precocenes as large- scale insecticides is a significant concern. Research on the mechanism of action suggests that toxicity may arise from the highly reactive Precocene-3,4-epoxide, a metabolite produced by Cytochrome P-450 in insects. Additionally, both the volatile oil and aqueous extract of A. conyzoides have shown allopathic effects on crops like ryegrass, mungbean, and radish, indicating potential negative impacts on cultivated plants²⁵. The growth of radish, tomato, and ryegrass seedlings was significantly inhibited by a saturated aqueous solution of the extracted and purified Precocenes I and II. The allopathic effects of the aqueous extract of A. conyzoides varied based on the plant's organs and developmental stages as well as the habitat in which it was grown.

Medicinal Uses and Pharmacological Studies:

A. conyzoides is extensively employed in traditional medicine by numerous cultures globally, although its applications differ by area. Ageratum conyzoides is a versatile plant widely used in traditional medicine across various regions, including Central Africa, India, Asia, South America, and Africa. Its applications range from treating wounds, burns, and pneumonia to alleviating fever, Rheumatism, Headache, Colic, Diarrhea and Spasms. The plant is valued for its Bacteriocide, Antidysenteric , Antilithic properties and is also used as a tonic. In specific countries like Cameroon and Congo, it's used to relieve fever and rheumatism while in Brazil, it's utilized to treat various ailments, including colic and spasms and is even recommended as an anti-rheumatic due to its rapid and efficient activity in treating burn wounds²⁶. To find efficacy, a number of pharmacological studies have been carried out. Duradola verified that ether and Chloroform extracts inhibited the growth of Staphylococcus aureus in vitro using a Methanolic extract of the entire plant.They also confirmed the inhibitory action in the development of B. subtilis, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Staphylococcus aureus were among the microorganisms studied. Additionally, the aqueous extract of Ageratum conyzoides leaves (at doses ranging from 100 to 400 mg/kg) demonstrated significant pain-relieving effects in rats.

Bioactivity:

The traditional application of Ageratum conyzoides as an antispasmodic was scientifically supported by experimental studies conducted in Kenya. In these assays, researchers used an aqueous extract prepared from the entire plant and observed notable muscle-relaxant activity, thereby confirming its effectiveness in relieving muscle spasms and supporting its use in traditional medicine for treating conditions involving involuntary muscle contractions.Assays carried out in Brazil by Paraiba Federal University and the State University of Campinas produced encouraging findings. Using an aqueous extract of the entire plant demonstrated effective clinical control of arthrosis, with 66% of patients reporting an Analgesic effect and 24% reporting an improvement in articulation mobility or a reduction in pain and inflammation following a week of treatment. This was observed in clinical trials involving patients with arthrosis. Ageratum conyzoides exhibits bioactive properties that could have applications in agriculture, as evidenced by various research studies in multiple nations. The leaves have been reported to function as an insect repellent. The insecticidal properties may stand out as the primary biological activity of this plant²⁷. The antijuvenile hormonal action of Terpenic chemicals, especially Precocenes, probably contributes to the insecticidal effects. Assays using whole plant hexane extract showed that this species was effective against Musca domestica larvae.The action of Cromenes (Precocenes I and II), isolated from Ageratum plants, was reported to expedite larval metamorphosis, resulting in juvenile forms or stunted and small adults. The juvenilizing hormonal effects of Precocene I and II in Ageratum conyzoides extract has demonstrated significant insecticidal effects, particularly against various larval stages. The Methanolic extract from its leaves has been shown to induce rapid metamorphosis, resulting in sterile or dying adults, as well as morphogenetic defects in mosquito larvae, including Aedes aegypti, Culex quinquefasciatus, and Anopheles stephensi. Notably, exposure to the extract causes dark stains on the cuticle, formation of immature pupae, and juvenile hormone deficiency, highlighting its potential as a natural pest control agent. These findings suggest that A. conyzoides could be a valuable resource for developing novel insecticides²⁸. Petroleum ether extracts of the whole plants (5 and 10 mg/L) have been used to confirm this. Incompletely grown adults, lengthier and discolored pupae, and intermediate phases between larvae and pupae were also displayed by the larvae.

Key Aspects of In Vitro and In Vivo Studise In Vitro Studies:²⁹

Table No.5: In Vitro study

Category	Method	Key Findings
Antimicrobial Activity	Extracts tested against bacteria, fungi, and parasites	Growth inhibition of microbes, with flavonoids, alkaloids, and essential oils contributing to the activity.
Antioxidant Potential	DPPH, ABTS, and FRAP assays	Measurement of free radical scavenging abilities.
Cytotoxicity and Anticancer Effects	Extracts applied to cancer cell lines	Induces apoptosis or inhibits cell proliferation.
Anti-inflammatory Activity	Inhibition of COX-2, TNF-α, and IL-6	Reduction in inflammation through enzyme and marker inhibition.
Phytochemical Analysis	HPLC and GC-MS techniques	Identification of bioactive constituents contributing to therapeutic effects.

In vivo studies:²⁹

Table No.6: In Vivo studies

Category	Method	Key Findings
Wound Healing Properties	Extracts tested in wound models	Enhanced healing rates through anti- inflammatory and antimicrobial mechanisms.
Anti-inflammatory and Analgesic Effects	Rodent models for edema and pain reduction	Reduction in swelling and pain through prostaglandin inhibition.
Hepatoprotective Effects	Evaluation in liver damage models (CCl₄, paracetamol)	Protective effects against liver damage induced by toxins.
Antimicrobial Efficacy	Animal infection models	Testing the ability to combat microbial infections in animals.
Toxicological Studies	Acute and chronic toxicity studies	Safety profile and determination of therapeutic dose range.

Findings (General Trends):

· Ageratum conyzoides contains bioactive compounds like Precocene, Coumarin and Phenolic acids that show promise in medicinal applications.

· Anticancer studies suggest potential for apoptosis induction via mitochondrial pathways.

· Antibacterial properties are particularly strong against Gram-positive bacteria, likely due to membrane disruption caused by Aromatic oils.

· Concerns about its long-term toxicity, particularly in high doses, remain under investigation.

Future Scope:

Ageratum conyzoides is utilized by some small-scale pharmaceutical companies in Brazil as a natural source of phytochemicals for developing various product .The scenario calls for more scientific study to invent both agricultural and medical purposes, as the need is growing annually²⁹. The majority of medicinal plant research should concentrate on species whose pharmacological properties have previously been established. Ageratum conyzoides shows promise as a valuable economic resource for tropical countries, given its potential applications and positive preliminary clinical results. Further research is warranted to fully explore its potential, particularly in developing natural biocides and pest management agents³⁰.

CONCLUSION:

Traditional medicinal research has drawn a lot of attention lately since it highlights the many undiscovered and little-known medicinal benefits, particularly those derived from plants, that require assessment using contemporary scientific methods including pharmacological screening, phytochemical analysis, and clinical trials. The literature on botanical, pharmacognostical, phytochemical, and pharmacological activity has been thoroughly reviewed in this review. Antioxidant, Antiviral, anti-inflammatory, Antibacterial, wound-healing, Antifungal, Antiallergic and Gastroprotective properties are all present in the plant. Despite Ageratum conyzoides being traditionally used to treat various ailments, its therapeutic efficacy has been scientifically evaluated in only a limited number of cases and models. To unlock its full potential, further clinical and pharmacological studies are essential to validate its effectiveness and explore new applications.

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24. Pharmacological properties of root and aerial parts extracts of Ageratum conyzoides on isolated ileum and heart. Fitoterapia 65: 322-25.

25. Almagboul AZ, Farroq AA and Tyagi BR: Antimicrobial activity of certain sudanese plants used in folkloric medicine: Screening for antibacterial activity, part II. Fitoterapia 1985; 56: 103-09.

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Received on 05.07.2025 Revised on 19.08.2025

Accepted on 22.09.2025 Published on 04.10.2025

Available online from October 10, 2025

Asian J. Res. Pharm. Sci. 2025; 15(4):433-438.

DOI: 10.52711/2231-5659.2025.00065

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. Creative Commons License.

Anilkumar Aher, Sonali Gawali, Vaishnavi Kamble*, Pranjal Jadhav, Chetan Darade,

Suraj Kharat, Harshada Tamkhane

The crude extracts were analyzed for phytochemical constituents, including Alkaloids, Tannins, Terpenoids, Saponins and Flavonoids using slightly modified standard procedures the techniques were as follows:

Bioactivity:

Pharmacological:

Key Aspects of In Vitro and In Vivo Studise In Vitro Studies:²⁹

Future Scope:

REFERENCES:

Anilkumar Aher, Sonali Gawali, Vaishnavi Kamble*, Pranjal Jadhav, Chetan Darade,

Suraj Kharat, Harshada Tamkhane

The crude extracts were analyzed for phytochemical constituents, including Alkaloids, Tannins, Terpenoids, Saponins and Flavonoids using slightly modified standard procedures the techniques were as follows:

Bioactivity:

Pharmacological:

Key Aspects of In Vitro and In Vivo Studise In Vitro Studies:29

Future Scope:

REFERENCES:

Key Aspects of In Vitro and In Vivo Studise In Vitro Studies:²⁹